Research Methodology

Preface 13

1.  Engineers and science   15

The book and its outline   15

An expanded toolbox   16

Contents and outline   17

What is an engineer?   19

Science, research and innovation   24

Needs-based research   26

Utility and innovation   28

Engineering science   29

Technology    30

Technology and science   32

Classifying the field of engineering science   33

If you want to learn more   34

2.  The methodological landscape   35

Map over the methodological landscape   36

Quantiative and qualitative in research   37

Techniques for collecting and analyzing data, research method and philosophy of science   39

Data and information in inquiring systems   40

Science and pseudoscience   42

Views of science   43

Ontology   44

Epistemology   45

Scientific ideals   45

Ethical guidelines   53

Philosophy of science approaches   54

Positivism   54

Pragmatism   54

Critical realism   56

Interpretivism   57

If you want to learn more   57

3.  The path from problem to solution   59

The research process   59

Problem-solving   61

Terminology, concepts and definitions   63

How may a scientific study contribute?   64

Academic contribution   64

Contribution to practical utility and usefulness   70

From problem area to research question   71

The way we ask …   73

… determines the answers we receive   73

Good problem formulations   74

Summary   76

Literature review   77

Structured literature review, step by step   78

The different functions of a literature review   83

Planning the study   84

Study design and method   84

Data collection, analysis and presentation of results   85

Do not get lost along the way   86

A logical flow   86

If you want to learn more   88

4.  Research methods and designs   89

Experiments   89

Independent and dependent variables   91

Experimental setting   93

Good laboratory practices   95

Experimental study designs   95

Factorial designs   98

Systematic parameter variation   102

Modeling and simulation   103

The modeling process – creating a (mathematical) model   105

Verifying and validating models    106

Carrying out research with the support of mathematical modeling and simulation   108

Design research   109

Design research methodology (DRM)   110

DRM in four steps   111

Types of DRM studies   112

Graphical representations as support in DRM   113

Survey   118

Descriptive survey study   119

Explanatory survey study   120

Execution   123

Case study   124

Case and unit of analysis   126

Design   126

Execution   128

Action research   131

Execution   131

The role of the researcher   132

Interactive research   133

Research systems and practitioner systems   133

Division of labor between researchers and practitioners   135

Execution   135

Choosing research method   138

If you want to learn more   139

5.  Techniques for data collection   141

Choosing technique for data collection   141

Sample   145

Measurements   148

To keep in mind during measurements   151

Advantages and drawbacks of measurements   156

Observations   156

To keep in mind during observations   157

Advantages and drawbacks of observations   164

Interviews   164

Interview guide – different types of questions   165

To keep in mind during interviews   167

Advantages and drawbacks of interviews   170

Questionnaires   171

Formulating questions   171

Response alternatives   175

To keep in mind during questionnaires   176

Advantages and drawbacks of using questionnaires   178

Workshops   179

What is a workshop?   179

Different types of workshops   180

To keep in mind when carrying out workshops   181

How a workshop may serve as a technique for data collection   183

Advantages and drawbacks of carrying out workshops   183

Document studies   184

Different types of documents   185

To keep in mind when engaging in document studies   185

Advantages and drawbacks of engaging in document studies   187

If you want to learn more   187

6.  Analyzing data   189

From collecting to processing and analyzing data   190

Processing and analyzing quantitative data   190

Type of variable and scale   191

Normal distribution   192

Descriptive statistics   194

Tables and graphical forms of presentation   195

Measure of central tendency   200

Measure of dispersion   201

Measure of correlation   202

Statistical inference   204

Hypothesis testing   205

Hypothesis testing – step by step   206

Parametric tests for hypothesis testing   209

Non-parametric tests for hypothesis testing   215

Processing and analyzing qualitative data   219

Thematic analysis   223

Content analysis   225

Qualitative data analysis   227

Presenting the results   232

If you want to learn more   234

7.  Scientific quality criteria   235

Quality in scientific studies   235

Relationship between validity and reliability   236

Systematic and random errors   237

Alternative quality criteria   238

Validity   239

Internal validity   239

Content, construct and criterion validity   240

External validity   241

How to strengthen validity?   243

Reliability   244

Possible actions for ensuring and strengthening validity and reliability   246

If you want to learn more   247

8.  Ethical considerations and guidelines   249

Professional ethics   250

Engineering ethics   251

Research ethics   254

Ethics in theory   255

Consequence ethics   255

Duty ethics   256

Engineering ethics in practice   258

Research ethics in practice   261

The CUDOS norms   261

Scientific misconduct   262

Research involving people   266

Ethical review   266

Protecting personal data   267

Confidentiality or anonymity   268

Informed consent   269

Research ethics checklist   271

Engineering ethics vs. research ethics   273

Ethics in degree projects   275

If you want to learn more   279

9.  Communicating and reviewing results   281

Scientific communication   282

Historical development   282

The system of scientific communication   284

How is scientific communication carried out?   284

Purpose and audience   285

Bibliometrics   286

Language and rules for writing academic texts   288

Numbers in the text   291

The importance of a well-written text   291

Writing process   292

From idea to finished text   293

Digital tools supporting the writing process   294

Structure of an academic text   295

Main text according to IMRaD   299

Introduction   299

Methods   301

Results   302

Discussion   303

Reference management   304

Reference systems   306

Software supporting reference management   309

Illustrating by means of tables and figures   310

Tables   311

Figures   311

Reviewing academic texts   313

Checklist for reviewers   313

Peer review of scientific articles   319

Verbal presentation and defending academic works   321

Presentation   322

Public examination and oral defense   323

Which types of texts does a professional engineer write?   324

Advice and strategies in relation to scientific writing   325

Let writing become part of your everyday life   326

Create a structure for the entire text – planning the text   327

Enable a quick start   329

Progression and planning your time   330

Read in order to write   330

Love your critics   331

If you want to learn more   331

Appendix 333

References 337

Index 349